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    Spelling Guidelines and Techniques

    To many writers, the English language seems riddled with exceptions to spelling rules. Yet most words conform to specific guidelines, and even the exceptions can be categorized for easy reference. The guidelines in this section explain how to spell most regular and many troublesome words.

    This section presents information specifically about dealing with prefixes, suffixes, and plurals. It also covers the rules for use of i and e combinations.

    Prefixes

    A prefix added at the beginning of a word changes its meaning. However, the prefix does not change the spelling of that word. Most prefixes are added without using a hyphen.

      • mis + step = misstep
      • im + memorial = immemorial
      • un + burden = unburden
      • over + enthusiastic = overenthusiastic
      • pre + formed = preformed
      • in + tolerable = intolerable
      • non + food = nonfood
      • re + draw = redraw

    Exceptions: the prefixes ex, self, and all are always used with a hyphen when they are joined to nouns.

      • ex + prizefighter = ex-prizefighter
      • self + awareness = self-awareness
      • all + inclusive = all-inclusive

    A hyphen is used when the prefix is joined to a proper noun or adjective.

      • non + English = non-English
      • pro + American = pro-American

    A hyphen is used when the resulting word might be confused with a similar word of different meaning or when the word might be confusing to the eye.

      • re + creation = re-creation (not recreation)
      • re + emphasize = re-emphasize
      • sub + subheading = sub-subheading

    Prefixes let us see how many words and terms English has borrowed from Greek, Latin, and French. Following is a list of the common prefixes used in English along with their meanings.

    Old English

    Prefix

    Meaning

    Example

    a

    in, on, of, up, to

    arise, awake

    be

    around, about, away

    behead, bedevil

    for, fore

    away, off, from

    forsake, forewarn

    mis

    badly, poorly, not

    misspell, mistake

    over

    above, excessively

    overextend, oversee

    un

    not, reverse of

    untidy, unnatural

    Latin/Latin-French

    Prefix

    Meaning

    Example

    ab, a, abs

    from, off, away

    absent, abscond

    ante

    before

    antechamber, anteroom

    bi

    two

    biweekly, bisect

    circum

    around

    circumspect

    col, com, con, co, cor

    with, together

    collide, companion, congregate, coexist, correlate

    contra, contro

    against

    contradict, controversial

    de

    away, from,

    off, down

    decline, depart

    dif, dis

    away, off, opposing

    disagree, differ

    e, ef, ex

    away, from, out

    efface, exit

    im, in

    in, into, within

    immerse, include

    il, im, in, ir

    not

    illegal, immoral, inescapable, irreverent

    inter

    among, between

    intercept, interstate

    intro, intra

    inward, within

    introduce, intrastate

    non

    not

    nonclinical, nonessential

    post

    after, following

    postscript, postoperative

    pre

    before

    preceding, prevent

    pro

    forward, in place of, favoring

    proceed, pronoun, pro-Canadian

    re

    back, backward, again

    recede, recur, reduce

    retro

    back, backward

    retroactive, retrojets

    semi

    half

    semicircle, semimonthly

    sub, suf, sum, sup, sus

    under, beneath

    suburb, suffuse, summon, support, suspicion

    super

    over, above, extra

    supervise, superfluous

    trans

    across, beyond

    transport, transnational

    ultra

    beyond, excessively

    ultraviolet, ultramodern

    Greek

    Prefix

    Meaning

    Example

    a

    lacking, without

    amoral, atheist

    anti

    against, opposing

    antismoking, antithesis

    apo

    from, away

    apology

    cata

    down, away, thoroughly

    cataclysm, catacomb

    dia

    through, across, apart

    diameter, dialogue

    epi

    at, on, over, among, beside

    epidemic, epigraph

    eu

    good, pleasant

    euphoria, eulogy

    hemi

    half

    hemisphere

    hyper

    excessive, over

    hyperactive, hypertension

    hypo

    under, beneath

    hypodermic, hypotension

    para

    beside, beyond

    parallel, paradox

    peri

    around

    perimeter, peripheral

    pro

    before

    prognosis, progress

    syl, sym, syn, sys

    together, with

    syllable, sympathy, synthesis, systematic

    Suffixes

    A suffix is added to the end of the word. In many cases, the spelling of the word does not change.

      • sly + ly = slyly
      • awkward + ness = awkwardness
      • work + able = workable

    The suffix elect, however, is always used with a hyphen.

      • secretary + elect = secretary-elect
      • president + elect = president-elect

    There are several instances in which the spelling of the root word does change when a suffix is added. The following guidelines categorize these changes.

    Final y as a Long e Sound. If the final y of a word represents a long e sound, then the final y changes to i before adding the suffix ness or ly.

      • merry + ly = merrily
      • dizzy + ness = dizziness

    Final y Preceded by a Consonant. With words that end in y and are pre- ceded by a consonant, change the y to i before any suffix not beginning with i.

      • sunny + er = sunnier
      • happy + ly = happily (but hurry + ing = hurrying)

    Final e Before a Suffix Beginning with a Vowel. The final e is dropped before a suffix that begins with a vowel.

      • dare + ing = daring
      • sale + able = salable

    The only exception to this rule is when the final e must be retained to maintain a soft c or g sound in the word.

      • notice + able = noticeable
      • courage + ous = courageous

    Final e Before a Suffix Beginning with a Consonant. Keep the final e when adding a suffix that begins with a consonant.

      • use + ful = useful
      • care + less = careless

    There are a few exceptions to this rule:

      • true + ly = truly (but sincere + ly = sincerely)
      • argue + ment = argument

    Final e with the Suffix ment. When the final e in a word is preceded by two consonants, drop the final e and add the suffix.

      • acknowledge + ment = acknowledgment
      • judge + ment = judgment

    When the final e in a word is preceded by a vowel and a consonant, keep the final e and add the suffix.

      • manage + ment = management

    Double Final Consonant Before a Suffix Beginning with a Vowel. The final consonant of a word is doubled when (1) the word has only one syllable, (2) the accent falls on the last syllable of the word (prefer), or (3) the word ends in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel.

      • drag + ed = dragged
      • sit + ing = sitting
      • omit + ing = omitting
      • ocCUR + ed = occurred
      • preFER + ing = preferring (but PREferable)
      • conTROL + able = controllable

    Single Final Consonant Before a Suffix. The final consonant remains single if the word is accented on the first syllable; if the final consonant is already double it remains double.

      • TARget + ed = targeted
      • CANcel + ing = canceling
      • tell + ing = telling
        pull ed pulled

    Words Ending in a Hard c Sound. For words ending in a hard c sound, add k before suffixes in, ed, and y.

      • panic + y = panicky
      • picnic + ing = picnicking
      • traffic + ed = trafficked
      • mimic + ing = mimicking

    Suffixes sede, ceed, and cede. Only one word in English ends in sede.

      • super + sede = supersede

    Only three words in English end in ceed.

      • exceed
      • proceed
      • succeed

    All other words with similar sounds end in cede.

      • precede
      • recede
      • secede
      • concede
      • accede

    Suffixes able and ible. The suffixes able and ible sound alike and mean nearly the same things such as “capable of being” and “worthy of being.” They are added to verbs and nouns to form adjectives.

      • irritate + able = irritable
      • permission + ible = permissible

    There is a handy rule of thumb for knowing when to use able or ible that works for most words. When a related word can be formed ending in ation, then able is the correct suffix. When a related word can be formed ending in ion or ive, then ible is correct.

      • duration = durable
      • irritation = irritable
      • repression = repressible
      • permissive = permissible

    If a word is not in the dictionary, it is spelled with able.

    When the suffix able is added to a word ending in e, the final e is dropped unless preceded by a c or g.

      • desire + able = desirable
      • use + able = usable
      • notice + able = noticeable
      • knowledge + able = knowledgeable

    Suffixes ant and ent, ance and ence. The four suffixes ant, ent, ance, and ence are added to change verbs to nouns and adjectives.

      • attend + ant = attendant
      • insist + ent = insistent
      • attend + ance = attendance
      • insist + ence = insistence

    Unfortunately, there is no rule for knowing when to use which suffix. Memorize the spellings of words with these endings. However, if the word you wish to spell is not in the dictionary, use ant or ance.

    Suffixes er and or. The suffixes er and or sound alike and both mean one who. Some words are spelled with either ending.

      • act + or = actor
      • drive + er = driver
      • visit + or = visitor
      • advise + or = advisor
      • advise + er = adviser
      • speak + er = speaker

    The suffix er is more common and is added to all new words in English. The suffix or occurs mainly with Latin root words, particularly legal terms, and is no longer added to words in English. If a word cannot be found in the dictionary, use the er suffix.

    Suffixes ize and ise. The suffixes ize and ise are added to adjectives and nouns to make verbs. The suffix ize is used in American English while the suffix ise is British.

      • legal + ize = legalize
      • custom + ize = customize
      • critic + ize = criticize

    Some words use either suffix as an ending, while others are spelled only with ise.

      • mesmer + ise = mesmerise
      • mesmer + ize = mesmerize
      • (advise, exercise, enterprise, disguise, chastise)

    If a word is not in the dictionary, use the ize suffix as the correct ending. Suffixes, like prefixes, have been added to English from several sources. Following is a list of the most common suffixes for nouns, adjectives, and verbs from Old English, Greek, Latin, and French along with their meanings.

    Old English

    Noun Suffixes

    Meaning

    Example

    dom

    state, rank, condition

    kingdom, wisdom, martyrdom

    er

    doer, maker

    writer, teacher

    ness

    quality, state

    hardness, likeness

    Latin, French, Greek

    Noun Suffixes

    Meaning

    Example

    age

    process, state, rank

    peerage, passage

    ance, ancy

    act, condition, fact

    vigilance, vacancy

    ard, art

    one that does (in excess)

    coward, braggart

    ate

    office, rank

    delegate, potentate

    ation

    action, state, result

    occupation, starvation

    cy

    state, condition

    delinquency, accuracy

    ee

    one receiving action

    retiree, employee

    eer

    doer, worker at

    engineer, mountaineer

    ence

    act, condition, fact

    evidence, sentence

    er

    doer, native of

    financier, baker

    ery

    skill, action,

    collection

    surgery, cookery

    ess

    feminine

    princess, lioness

    et, ette

    little, feminine

    islet, majorette

    ion

    action, result, state

    union, conclusion

    ism

    act, manner, doctrine

    baptism, barbarism, feminism

    ist

    doer, believer

    plagiarist, socialist

    ition

    action, state, result

    sedition, expedition

    ity

    state, quality,

    condition

    civility, rarity

    ment

    means, result, action

    embarrassment, fulfillment

    or

    doer, office, action

    actor, juror

    ry

    condition, practice,

    collection

    archery, jewelry

    tion

    action, condition

    delegation, destruction

    tude

    quality, state, result

    multitude, fortitude

    ty

    quality, state

    witty, beauty

    ure

    act, result, means

    culture, ligature

    y

    result, action, quality

    arty, jealousy, handy

    Old English

    Adjective Suffixes

    Meaning

    Example

    en

    made of, like

    silken, golden

    ful

    full of, marked by

    thoughtful, careful

    ish

    suggesting, like

    prudish, childish

    less

    lacking, without

    thankless, hopeless

    like

    like, similar

    catlike, dreamlike

    ly

    like, of the nature of

    heavily, friendly

    some

    apt to, showing

    worrisome, tiresome

    ward

    in the direction of

    forward, downward

    y

    showing, suggesting

    heavy, wavy, rocky

    Foreign

    Adjective Suffixes

    Meaning

    Example

    able

    able, likely

    workable, likeable

    ate

    having, showing

    animate, duplicate

    escent

    becoming, growing

    obsolescent

    esque

    in the style of, like

    statuesque, picturesque

    fic

    making, causing

    terrific

    ible

    able, likely, fit

    producible, edible

    ose

    marked by, given to

    bellicose, comatose

    ous

    marked by, given to

    wondrous, religious

    Adjective/Noun Suffixes

    Meaning

    Example

    al

    doer, pertaining to

    ritual, autumnal

    an

    one belonging to,

    pertaining to


    American, human

    ant

    actor, agent, showing

    servant

    ary

    belonging to, one connected with

    functionary, adversary

    ent

    doing, showing, actor

    agent, confident

    ese

    of a place or style

    Japanese, journalese

    ian

    pertaining to, one

    belonging to

    reptilian, Sicilian

    ic

    dealing with, caused

    by, person or thing

    scientific, epidemic

    ile

    marked by, one

    marked by

    senile, juvenile

    ine

    marked by, dealing

    with, one marked by

    divine, feline, marine

    ite

    formed, showing,

    one marked by

    Muscovite, favorite, composite

    ory

    doing, pertaining to,

    place or thing for

    accessory, observatory

    Old English

    Verb Suffix

    Meaning

    Example

    en

    cause to be, become

    enliven, awaken

    Foreign

    Verb Suffixes

    Meaning

    Example

    ate

    become, form, treat

    formulate, agitate

    esce

    become, grow, continue

    convalesce, acquiesce

    fy

    make, cause, cause to harm

    fortify, glorify

    ish

    do, make, perform

    finish, distinguish

    ize

    make, cause to be

    mobilize, sterilize

    Plurals

    We have already briefly touched on plurals of words; here is more detailed information.

    Regular Nouns. The plural of most nouns is formed by adding s.

    Singular

    Plural

    eagle

    eagles

    minister

    ministers

    record

    records

    Irregular Nouns. For most irregular nouns, the spelling changes to form the plural. Because the spelling changes do not follow any general rule, the forms must be memorized.

    Singular

    Plural

    child

    children

    goose

    geese

    man

    men

    mouse

    mice

    woman

    women

    Some irregular nouns keep the same form for both singular and plural.

    Singular

    Plural

    deer

    deer

    sheep

    sheep

    species

    species

    Nouns Ending in s, ss, z, sh, ch, and x. For nouns ending in s, ss, z, sh, ch, and x, add es to form the plural.

    Singular

    Plural

    address

    addresses

    box

    boxes

    buzz

    buzzes

    dish

    dishes

    fez

    fezes

    gas

    gases

    kiss

    kisses

    watch

    watches

    Nouns Ending in y. For nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, change the y to i and add es. For nouns ending in y preceded by a vowel, simply add s.

    NOUNS ENDING IN Y PRECEDED BY A CONSONANT

    Singular

    Plural

    category

    categories

    currency

    currencies

    secretary

    secretaries

    territory

    territories

    NOUNS ENDING IN Y PRECEDED BY A VOWEL

    Singular

    Plural

    delay

    delays

    holiday

    holidays

    relay

    relays

    Wednesday

    Wednesdays

    Nouns Ending in o. For nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant, add s or es. If the o is preceded by a vowel, add s.

    NOUNS ENDING IN O PRECEDED BY A CONSONANT

    Singular

    Plural

    hero

    heroes

    potato

    potatoes

    solo

    solos

    tomato

    tomatoes

    NOUNS ENDING IN O PRECEDED BY A VOWEL

    Singular

    Plural

    radio

    radios

    stereo

    stereos

    studio

    studios

    All musical and literary terms ending in o add s to form the plural.

    Singular

    Plural

    oratorio

    oratorios

    piano

    pianos

    rondo

    rondos

    soprano

    sopranos

    Nouns ending in f or fe. Many nouns ending in f or fe simply add s to form the plural. However, some nouns change the f to v and add es.

    ADD S

    Singular

    Plural

    chief

    chiefs

    dwarf

    dwarfs

    CHANGE F OR FE TO V AND ADD ES

    Singular

    Plural

    half

    halves

    knife

    knives

    life

    lives

    self

    selves

    wife

    wives

    wolf

    wolves

    Compound Nouns as One Word. Compound nouns written as one word and ending in s, sh, ch, or x form the plural by adding es. In all other cases, the plural is formed by simply adding s.

    COMPOUND NOUNS ADDING ES

    Singular

    Plural

    lockbox

    lockboxes

    toothbrush

    toothbrushes

    COMPOUND NOUNS ADDING S

    Singular

    Plural

    firefighter

    firefighters

    mainframe

    mainframes

    Compound Nouns as Two Words. The plural of compound nouns written as two or more words is formed by making the main word plural.

    Singular

    Plural

    chairman of the board

    chairmen of the board

    editor in chief

    editors in chief

    notary public

    notary publics or notaries public

    vice president

    vice presidents

    Hyphenated Compound Nouns. Hyphenated compound nouns are made plural either by adding s to the main word or, if there is no main word, adding s to the end of the compound.

    ADDING S TO THE MAIN WORD

    Singular

    Plural

    ex-governor

    ex-governor

    passer-by

    passers-by

    president-elect

    presidents-elect

    son-in-law

    sons-in-law

    ADDING S TO THE END OF THE COMPOUND

    Singular

    Plural

    grown-up

    grown-ups

    start-up

    start-ups

    trade-in

    trade-ins

    write-in

    write-ins

    Foreign Words. Some foreign words form plurals as they would in the original language.

    Singular

    Plural

    alumna (female)

    alumnae

    alumnus (male)

    alumni

    basis

    bases

    crisis

    crises

    datum

    data

    tableau

    tableaux

    Other foreign words form the plural either as they do in the original language or by adding s or es as in English. When in doubt about the preferred form, consult a dictionary.

    Singular

    Foreign Plural

    English Plural

    appendix

    appendices

    appendixes

    formula

    formulae

    formulas

    index

    indices

    indexes

    Numbers, Letters, Words, Symbols. The plural of numbers, letters, words, and symbols is formed by adding ’s to the term.

      • three 5’s
      • two &’s and three #’s
      • use l’s and m’s
      • yes’s and no’s

    The i and e Rules

    Use i before e, except after c, for the long e sound in a word.

      • believe
      • grievance
      • piece
      • relieve
      • retrieve
      • thief

    The exceptions to this rule are the words either, neither, leisure, seized, and weird.

    Use e before i after c for the long e sound in a word. ceiling receipt

      • deceive
      • receive
      • ceiling
      • receipt

    Use e before i when the sound in the word is not long e.

      • eight
      • freight
      • height
      • neighbor
      • weigh
      • weight
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